Simone van Saarloos
‘‘The body contains the life story just as much as the brain’ – Edna O’Brien
Dit is het motto van Philip Roths novelle The Dying Animal. Edna O’brien (1930) is een Ierse auteur, wier boeken en korte verhalen vaak vanuit het vrouwelijk perspectief worden verteld. Ook schreef zij een toneelstuk, Virginia, geïnspireerd op Virginia Woolf. Dat Roth juist deze uitspraak als motto voor The Dying Animal gekozen heeft, is tekenend. Hij duidt hiermee twee dingen aan: ten eerste zet hij de rol van het lichaam centraal – hetgeen we ook duidelijk in het verhaal zien terugkomen – en ten tweede opent Roth hiermee de mogelijkheid om de rol van de vrouw in zijn novelle te bespreken. Deze mogelijkheid dient zich niet alleen aan vanwege het voorafgaande motto, maar dringt zich ook al op wanneer we de verschuivende machtsverhouding tussen David Kepesh en Consuela Castillo in ogenschouw nemen. Hoewel de machtspositie verschuift van de typische ‘old white male’ literatuurprofessor David naar de ‘exotische’ en jonge Consuela, lijkt er op institutioneel niveau weinig te veranderen. Ondanks de seksuele revolutie die David met smaak beschrijft, is het ouderwetse, masculiene bestuur nog steeds aan de macht.
Allereerst zal ik een fenomenologische benadering aannemen, om het belang van het lichaam aan te stippen. Vervolgens zal ik aantonen dat de relatie tussen fenomenologie en feministische of ´gender´ theorieën vrij nauw is. Hiermee wil ik laten zien dat de machtsverhoudingen in Philip Roths Dying animal niet zozeer in het intellectuele idee van homo universalis zit verstopt, maar dat macht in het lichaam zit. Het lichaam is zowel slachtoffer van onderdrukking als een emancipatorisch gereedschap.
Het belang van het lichaam in betekenisgeving en ervaring is geen vanzelfsprekendheid. O’Brien stipt dit aan door te benadrukken dat het lichaam het verhaal net zo goed heeft opgenomen als het brein. Dat het lichaam wordt genegeerd in de dagelijkse en filosofische reflectie op betekenisgeving, ligt besloten in het moderne onderscheid tussen lichaam en geest, waarbij het lichaam als geestloos wordt beschouwd. Begrip en beschouwing vindt plaats in de geest.
De filosofische stroming van de fenomenologie stelt het lichaam juist centraal als beginpunt van onze ervaring. Hoewel de fenomenologie haar oorsprong kent in de filosofieën van Edmund Husserl, is de denker Maurice Merleau-Ponty uitgegroeid tot een van de belangrijkste fenomenologische denkers. Voor Merleau-Ponty is het lichaam niet alleen object, maar ook subject. De wereld wordt dus niet Cartesiaans begrepen door de categorieën van het verstand, maar wordt allereerst ingenomen door de ervaring van het lichaam. Allereerst ben ik primair als lichaam in de wereld en heb ik hierdoor toegang tot de wereld buiten mij.
Simone de Beauvoir stelt in De tweede sekse dat het lichaam geassocieerd wordt met de vrouw en het geestelijke met de man. We zien deze veronderstelling terug in The Dying Animal. Het is niet toevallig dat de machtsverhouding tussen Consuela en David lijkt te verschuiven wanneer zij naar zijn geslacht hapt. Consuela biedt geen verbaal – overigens wel een oraal – weerwoord, maar gebruikt haar lichaam als wapen. David raakt uiteindelijk verslaaft aan het lichaam van Consuela. Zijn drang om haar lichaam eigen te maken gaat zover dat hij haar bloed oplikt. Zijn intellectuele kracht floreert al lang niet meer bij de fysieke macht die Consuela over hem heeft. Wanneer Consuela afstudeert gaat de relatie verloren en pas wanneer fysieke destructie haar te pakken krijgt, keert ze bij hem terug. Wanneer ze op oudjaarsavond bij elkaar zitten begint Consuela over haar verleden te vertellen: ‘She began to speak about herself as she never had before’ (149) en ‘you didn’t talk like this eight years ago. Then you were a listener. My student’ (152). Nogmaals keren hier de rollen om. Waar Consuela de macht over David in het begin van hun relatie verkreeg door haar fysieke bedreiging, neemt zij nu de verbale leiding. Dat waar David zijn identiteit in ieder geval nog uit kon destilleren ten op zichte van zijn minnares, gaat verloren nu Consuela fysiek de controle verliest.
Een minder feministische, maar eveneens vanuit de gender-theorie geabstraheerde lezing geeft een ander perspectief: het lichaam niet als machtswapen, maar als een instrument van onderdrukking. Wanneer we ons op Judith Butlers gendertheorie baseren komt het lichaam niet alleen als instrument van vitaliteit en ervaring naar voren, maar ook als een kwetsbare lei waarin inscripties van identiteit gebeiteld kunnen worden. Voor Butler is ‘gender’ geen vaststaand, a priori gegeven eigenschap, maar een geïmiteerde lichamelijke act. Binnen het heersende discourse wordt een lichaam dus instrumenteel behandeld; het lichaam is niet vrij of handelt volgens een kern, maar wordt gestuurd door ideeën en regels van buitenaf. Consuela’s lichaam lijkt haar tot dan toe te benadelen. Haar vrouwelijke schoonheid bepaalt haar levensloop. Het is daarom dat zij nooit eerder sprak zoals zij het nu doet, nu haar lichaam niet voldoende meer is om een stem mee te verwerven.
Wanneer we Beauvoir met Butler koppelen en aannemen dat het lichaam met het vrouwelijke geassocieerd wordt en het geestelijke met het mannelijke, dan is de inscriptie van tekst een mannelijk gedomineerd domein. Tekst komt immers vanuit het geestelijke voort. Dat deze uitoefening van macht zelfs letterlijk genomen niet geheel een verwerpelijk idee is bewijst bijvoorbeeld de film Fitna van Geert Wilders. Hierin wordt van eenzelfde retoriek gebruik gemaakt: de teksten van de Koran worden op het lichaam van een vrouw geprojecteerd.
De tegenstelling die Beauvoir poneert komt hier terug: de vrouw wordt geassocieerd met het lichamelijke. Toch moeten we de meer recentere Butler (hoewel ook haar theorieën behoefte aan vernieuwing hebben) erbij halen: is de vrouw daadwerkelijk vrij wanneer zij haar boerka afdoet? Volgens de simplistische redenering van Wilders wel. Butler zou er echter tegenover stellen dat er geen ware vervolmaking van het geslacht noch de ‘zelf’ bestaat. Ook wanneer de vrouw haar boerka afwerpt, is haar lichaam een instrument; haar lichaam wordt – net als het mannelijke lichaam – beschreven met de gewoonten en regels van het heersende discours. Ieder mens laat zich ´onderdrukken´ door de opschriften van de wereld om hem of haar heen.
Zo kan zelfs worden gesteld dat niet het afdoen van de boerka bevrijdend werkt, maar juist het dragen van een boerka. Zoals Consuela een geestelijke vrijheid herwint wanneer zij niet langer in de weg wordt gestaan door haar lichaam, geeft de boerka de vrouw ruimte om te ontsnappen aan haar door conventies en regels beschreven lichaam. In Baas in eigen boerka van Rob Vreeken (hij pleit overigens voor een verbod op de boerka in Nederland) parafraseert hij Shervin Nekuee die in De Perzische paradox schrijft: ‘De vrouwen zijn gehoofd-doekt, maar hun hersenen werken sneller dan ooit’ (257). Willen de vrouwen ontsnappen aan de opgelegde associatie met lichamelijkheid, dan lijken daar twee resoluties: de eigen lichamelijkheid verbergen of deze associatie doorbreken. Zolang politieke leiders die voor emancipatie prediken hun debat voeren over het lichaam van vrouwen als het kenmerk van vrijheid, wordt het onlosmakend verband tussen vrouw en lichaam niet verbroken.
Wanneer we het lichaam centraal stellen, zien we dat ze zowel een instrument van onderdrukking is als van overheersing. Enerzijds dient het lichaam om een revolutie teweeg te brengen, zoals de seksuele revolutie in Philip Roth´s Dying Animal of de transitieve machtsverhouding tussen Consuela en David. Anderzijds is het lichaam een middel van retoriek – zie de discussie die nu over het hoofddoekbeleid wordt gevoerd.
Het ‘lullige’ van het lichaam als emancipatiemiddel is dat het lichaam uiteindelijk aftakelt en vergaat. Soms zelfs veel te vroeg; zoals we bij Consuela zien. Wellicht dat de gulden middenweg – een Platonische balans tussen lichaam en geest – dan toch het meest efficiënt is. Misschien is het boek hier wel het ultimum van: de roman als de vereeuwigde belichaming van de geestelijke productiviteit.
Literatuur
• Beauvoir, Simone De. De tweede sekse. Utrecht: Bijleveld, 2000.
• Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
• Roth, Philip. The Dying Animal. London: Vintage, 2006.
• Vreeken, Rob. Baas in eigen boerka. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 2010.
• Wilders, Geert. Fitna. Youtube, 2008.
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