Kris Rutten
‘Perhaps the guerrilla promoters of literacy who offer a shag to anyone spotted reading a novel are on the right track. Novels, surely, can still be sexy, time wasting, and subversive – or do they have to be vitamin-enriched bowls conveying good-for-you moral fibre? (Keen, 2007 quoted in Takolander, 2009, p. 64)
The topic of cultural literacy and the necessity of introducing ‘culture’ in education has been a subject of academic and public debate for many years. There is an ongoing conversation about the possible functions of literature and art in our contemporary society – and its related educational system – that is increasingly being challenged by developments such as globalization, multiculturalism and digitization. Martha Nussbaum – one voice in this debate – argues that reading novels can make us more empathetic towards the stories of others. She states that literature should be used to orient ourselves cosmopolitically and to stimulate our moral imagination (Nussbaum, 1995). Recently, she argued that democracies need the humanities and she pleaded for the importance of the liberal arts at all levels of education (Nussbaum, 2010). From a cognitive perspective, this raises the issue of what we might ‘learn’ from works of imaginative literature, or other cultural artefacts such as films, games, cartoons and graphic novels. Indeed, literary cognitivism tries to make sense of the “worldly interest we take in the literary work of art: to explain why we turn to literature with the expectation of having our understanding of the world refined, augmented, even shocked” (Gibson, 2007, p. 1). In this essay it is not my aim to specifically tackle, let alone solve these issues, but I want to discuss possible functions of literature from an educational perspective by presenting a rhetorical understanding of narratives and introducing literature as ‘equipment for living’.
Narrative
Over the last few decades there has been a wave of narrative theorizing and narratives are increasingly used as models for analysis and as explanatory devices. More recently – and not surprisingly a century and a half after the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origins of Species – scholars have published comprehensive analyses on the functions of narrative based on Darwin’s evolutionary theory (Boyd, 2009; Dutton, 2009; Gottschall & Wilson, 2005). Indeed, there is a growing interest in the art instinct (Dutton, 2009) and the evolution of the literary animal (Gottschall & Wilson, 2005). Boyd’s (2009) account On The Origin of Stories, for example, examines why we tell stories, how our minds are shaped to understand them and what an evolutionary perspective on human nature tells us about stories. Boyd (2009) argues that narratives are a specific form of human adaptation that offers tangible advantages for human survival, specifically because the art of storytelling has sharpened social cognition, encouraged cooperation and fostered creativity. This focus on the ‘essential’ characteristic of man as a literary animal, is of course a compelling (and reassuring) argument for introducing literature and art in education. But, maybe we need more.
The work of the educational psychologist Jerome Bruner offers an important perspective to reflect upon the art of storytelling in general and the introduction of literary narratives in education in particular. Bruner (1986) confronted two modes of thought, two modes of cognitive functioning, each rendering different and distinctive ways of constructing reality and ordering experience: the logico-scientific mode and the narrative mode. For Bruner, these two modes are complementary though irreducible to one another. The logico-scientific mode of thinking looks for general and empirically tested truths, and the knowledge that it produces should not be contradictory. The narrative mode on the other hand, looks for the intentionality of human actions (what and why?) and the context in which these actions took place (where and when?). From the narrative perspective, truth is approached as situated or contextual. This can be related to Rorty’s (1989) call for a “general turn against theory and towards narrative” in order to recognize different interpretations of social reality. In what follows, I will introduce the work of Kenneth Burke – one of the founding fathers of the so-called ‘new rhetoric’ tradition – as a possible frame of reference for exploring these different interpretations of social reality.
Rhetoric
The American rhetorician Kenneth Burke [1897-1993] was an influential literary theorist of the twentieth century who focused on analysing literary texts which he used as a point of departure to comment on “the work itself, society and the nature of language and communication” (Brock 1999, p. 2). He described the human being as the symbol-making, symbol-using and symbol-misusing animal and he approached human action as fundamentally rhetorical. We cannot avoid rhetoric because “when we speak, act, dress, eat, and generally conduct our lives, we communicate and, in doing so, persuade others, including ourselves” (Gusfield, 1989, p. 17). It is important to situate the work of Kenneth Burke in the ‘new rhetoric’ tradition. Moving away from a more traditional focus on rhetoric as the ability to use the most effective means of persuasion for specific situations, the new rhetoric emphasizes the inevitable consequences of our language use, focusing on “rhetoric as a means of understanding and living successfully in a world of symbols” (Herrick, 2004, p. 223).
From this perspective, reality is created by the symbols we use, especially the larger structures such as drama or narrative into which these symbols are arranged (Brummett, 2006). By focusing on literature and drama, Burke gained insight into methods for analysing human symbolic action. The main aim of Burke was to tease out the motive of social interactions – the motive being the reasons why people do the things they do: “What is involved when we say what people are doing and why they are doing it”? (Burke, 1969, p. xv). He argues that:
‘Since the real world of action is so confused and complicated as to seem almost formless, and too extended and unstable for orderly observation … [there is need for] a more limited material that might be representative of human ways while yet having fixity enough to allow for systematic examination. (Burke, 1955, p. 263)
From this perspective, “great dramas would be our equivalents of the laboratory experimenter’s ‘test cases’.” (Burke, 1955, p. 263). So, it was his commentary on literary texts that made him understand the nature of human symbol-use.
Literature as ‘equipment for living’
From a rhetorical perspective, Burke (1973) described literary art forms such as tragedy, comedy or satire as equipment for living that size up situations in various ways and refer to corresponding attitudes. He describes literature as a specific kind of naming that seeks to chart type situations. Burke illustrates his argument with the example of Madame Bovary as the strategic naming of a situation, because “it singles out a pattern of experience that is sufficiently representative of our social structure for people to ‘need a word for it’” (Burke, 1973, p. 300). By offering strategies for encompassing a situation, literature can become equipment for living: “a chart, a formula, manual, or map that an audience may consult in trying to decide on various courses of action” (Foss, 2004, p. 70).
A rhetorical understanding of narratives assumes that narratives are created and used to understand and formulate problems people encounter in life:
‘An author, a poet or political speaker puts symbols together in an essay, a poem, movie, oration, or other text as a way of trying to understand and respond to certain problems in life. Once a way of understanding and reacting to a problem is encoded in a text, that text becomes a place to which others may also turn for motivation and perceptions” (Brummett, 2006, p. 180).
The way that literature describes a strategy for encompassing a situation should not be understood as a literal prescription, but should be described as an orientation to a situation, providing assistance in adjusting to it. Therefore, from an educational perspective, literature and drama can be studied as test cases for insights into motives and for the analysis of human action. Indeed, narratives can be used for teaching by introducing them as equipment for living, as a specific kind of naming that seeks to chart type situations and at the same time offering strategies for encompassing that situation.
In conclusion
With this short essay, I wanted to take part in the ongoing conversation about the possible functions of literature and I end by taking Bruner’s (2005) questions seriously: “So, why not use literary works to help us teach sociology, psychology, pedagogy, even (or especially) history?” (p. 63). Based on the above, I want to argue that students, in different educational contexts, can benefit from a rhetorical analysis of literature (and narratives in general). By learning to read situations (and accounts of situations) in a rhetorical way, students can learn to understand these situations from multiple and confronting perspectives. To rephrase Burke’s argument that we can approach the world either symbol-wise, or symbol-foolish: a symbol-wise perspective would be one that focuses on the ambiguities that are inherently present in our symbol systems (such as literature and drama) and in our attribution of motives to human action (Blakesley, 2002). This idea of becoming symbol-wise can be related to Booth’s (2004) ‘listening rhetoric’ that refers to a basic attitude within debates: to understand others, to treat the arguments of others in a fair manner and to look for what we share with others instead of what divides us. Indeed, turning away from a rhetoric that only has attention for persuading (in the negative sense of the world as manipulating) to a rhetoric that pays attention to listening (with a positive attention for other’s and one’s own blind spots). This can be a possible function of art and literature in our contemporary society that is increasingly being challenged by ‘conflicting’ rhetorical positions. Of course, without forgetting that novels can still be ‘time wasting’ and not necessarily need to be ‘good-for-you moral fibre’.
[i] This essay is based on my PhD-dissertation in Educational Studies: Rutten, K. (2010). The rhetorical and narrative turn. Explorations in education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ghent University, Ghent.
References
Blakesley, D. (2002). The Elements of Dramatism. New York: Longman Publishers.
Booth, W.C. (1988). The vocation of a teacher: rhetorical occasions, 1967-1988. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Boyd, B. (2009). On the Origin of Stories. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Brock, B. L. (Ed.). (1998). Kenneth Burke and the 21st Century. New York: State University of New York Press.
Brummett, B. (2006). Rhetoric in Popular Culture. London: Sage.
Bruner, J. S. (1986). Actual Minds. Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. S. (2005). The Reality of Fiction. McGill Journal of Education, 40(1), 55-64.
Burke, K. (1955). Linguistic approaches to problems of education. In N.B. Henry (ed), Modern Philosophies and Education. The Fifty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1 (pp. 259-303). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Burke, K. (1969). A Grammar of Motives (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Burke, K. (1973). The Philosophy of Literary Form (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Dutton, D. (2009). The Art Instinct. Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution. London: Bloomsbury Press.
Gibson, J. (2007). Introduction: the prospects of literary cognitivism. In J. Gibson, W. Huemer & L. Pocci (Eds.), A Sense of the World. Essays on Fiction, Narrative and Knowledge (1-10). New York and London: Routledge.
Gottschall, J. & Wilson, D.S. (Eds.). (2005). The literary animal: evolution and the nature of narrative. Evanston: North Western University Press.
Gusfield, J. (1989). On Symbols and Society. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Herrick, J. (2004). The History and Theory of Rhetoric. An Introduction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Poetic justice: The literary imagination and public life. Boston, MA: Beacon.
Nussbaum, M. (2010) Not For Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, Irony and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Takolander, M. (2009). “Energetic Space”: The Experience of Literature and Learning. College Literature, 36(3), 165-183.
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